NASA’s recent push to fast-track a nuclear reactor on the Moon by 2030, in response to China’s similar goal for 2035, signals a pivotal shift in space exploration. This move, aligned with NASA’s Artemis-II and China’s lunar lander test, underscores a transition from one-off landings to permanent infrastructure. The convergence of nuclear reactors, autonomous mining, and additive manufacturing is making sustained lunar presence not just possible, but increasingly likely.
At the heart of this transformation is the nuclear reactor, a critical enabler for 3D printers, robotic excavators, and other platforms requiring continuous power. Without it, long-term lunar operations cannot function. Once energy is assured, lunar activities—construction, maintenance, and habitation—can proceed with reduced reliance on Earth-based resupply.
Both the United States and China have made significant strides in 3D printing technology, which, when deployed on the Moon, could drastically reduce dependence on Earth-based materials. Mining technology is advancing at a similar pace. US startup Interlune, backed by NASA, is developing an autonomous system to process 100 metric tonnes of lunar soil per hour, targeting helium-3, a rare isotope for fusion energy. China, meanwhile, has unveiled a six-legged lunar mining robot and is developing a magnetic launch system to send materials into orbit, cutting costs and enabling a steady supply chain.
These technologies reinforce each other. Continuous energy powers autonomous mining, which feeds material processing. Processing enables manufacturing, which in turn can replicate power infrastructure. A 2023 International Atomic Energy Agency brief notes that “advanced manufacturing techniques will play a vital role in enabling future modular reactors.” While enriched uranium and alloys still need to be shipped from Earth, the Moon offers silicon, aluminium, and iron—suitable for structures and shielding. A hybrid model may emerge: core parts from Earth, outer structures made on-site. What’s emerging isn’t just energy—it’s the basis for a scalable lunar economy.
These capabilities point to permanent human operations in space. With stable energy, automated labour, and on-site production, the Moon can evolve from a research outpost to a logistics hub. The implications are strategic. The first nation to build lasting infrastructure will shape the rhythm of lunar activity. Missions are no longer about testing; they’re about continuity and control.
Resource access is central. The Moon holds over a million tons of helium-3, largely absent on Earth but abundant due to solar wind exposure. Fusion reactors using helium-3 could deliver clean energy with minimal radioactive waste, offering a major edge to early access nations. The Moon also contains rare earth elements vital for semiconductors, clean tech, and defence. The US Geological Survey notes that 70% of Earth’s current rare earth production comes from China. Lunar alternatives could reshape or reinforce global supply chains.
Lunar infrastructure becomes political and economic leverage. The ability to mine, refine, and use materials on-site gives early actors a commanding edge. As this capacity grows, access may be shaped not by global rules, but by who gets there first.
This urgency reveals a legal vacuum. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty bans national appropriation but says little about long-term operations, resource rights, or exclusion zones. In 2015, the United States passed the Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act, granting private firms rights to extract and own space resources. As Senator Ted Cruz explained, “You don’t own the ocean, but you can own the fish you catch.” The Artemis Accords, signed by 56+ countries, extend this principle. They emphasise peaceful use and transparency—but also introduce “safety zones” to prevent interference.
NASA’s Mike Gold says these zones are “not about ownership; they’re about transparency and deconfliction.” Yet the language is vague. Terms like “reasonable” and “nominal” lack precision and are open to misuse. China, not part of the Artemis Accords, supports a different vision. Its official documents describe the Moon as “the common wealth of all humanity” and promote UN-based governance. Yet it’s also moving forward with establishing the International Lunar Research Station in partnership with Russia, offering a parallel system: cooperative in language, competitive in practice.
Bridging this gap is slow. The UN’s Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space launched a legal working group through 2027. But while talks continue, commercial hardware is already landing. American and Chinese companies are shaping norms on the ground. In the absence of rules, today’s actions may become tomorrow’s precedent.
Still, this is not just a moment of competition; it’s an opportunity. Emerging tech, including nuclear power, robotic mining, and on-site manufacturing, could become tools for peaceful cooperation. Both the United States and China emphasise peaceful intent. The US calls Artemis “a platform